Users may also define their own data types as structures, along with
user-defined operators, much as in C++. By default, structure members
are public
(may be read and modified anywhere in the code), but may be
optionally declared restricted
(readable anywhere but writeable
only inside the structure where they are defined) or private
(readable and writable only inside the structure). In a structure definition,
the keyword this
can be used as an expression to refer to the enclosing
structure. Any code at the
top-level scope within the structure is executed on initialization.
Variables hold references to structures. That is, in the example:
struct T { int x; } T foo; T bar=foo; bar.x=5;
The variable foo
holds a reference to an instance of the structure
T
. When bar
is assigned the value of foo
, it too
now holds a reference to the same instance as foo
does. The assignment
bar.x=5
changes the value of the field x
in that instance, so
that foo.x
will also be equal to 5
.
The expression new T
creates a new instance of the structure T
and
returns a reference to that instance. In creating the new instance, any code in
the body of the record definition is executed. For example:
int Tcount=0; struct T { int x; ++Tcount; } T foo=new T; T foo;
Here, new T
produces a new instance of the class, which
causes Tcount
to be incremented, tracking the
number of instances produced. The declarations T foo=new T
and
T foo
are equivalent: the second form implicitly creates a new
instance of T
.
That is, after the definition of a structure T
, a variable of
type T
is initialized to a new instance (new T
) by
default. During the definition of the structure, however, variables
of type T
are initialized to null
by default. This
special behavior is to avoid infinite recursion of creating new
instances in code such as
struct tree { int value; tree left; tree right; }
The expression null
can be cast to any structure type to yield a null
reference, a reference that does not actually refer to any instance of the
structure. Trying to use a field of a null reference will cause an error.
The function bool alias(T,T)
checks to see if two structure references
refer to the same instance of the structure (or both to null
).
In the example at the beginning of this section, alias(foo,bar)
would return true, but alias(foo,new T)
would return false, as new
T
creates a new instance of the structure T
. The boolean operators
==
and !=
are by default equivalent to alias
and
!alias
respectively, but may be overwritten for a particular type
(for example, to do a deep comparison).
Here is a simple example that illustrates the use of structures:
struct S { real a=1; real f(real a) {return a+this.a;} } S s; // Initializes s with new S; write(s.f(2)); // Outputs 3 S operator + (S s1, S s2) { S result; result.a=s1.a+s2.a; return result; } write((s+s).f(0)); // Outputs 2
It is often convenient to have functions that construct new instances of a
structure. Say we have a Person
structure:
struct Person { string firstname; string lastname; } Person joe; joe.firstname="Joe"; joe.lastname="Jones";
Creating a new Person is a chore; it takes three lines to create a new instance and to initialize its fields (that’s still considerably less effort than creating a new person in real life, though).
We can reduce the work by defining operator init
:
struct Person { string firstname; string lastname; void operator init(string firstname, string lastname) { this.firstname=firstname; this.lastname=lastname; } } Person joe=Person("Joe", "Jones");
The use of operator init
to implicitly define constructors should not be
confused with its use to define default values for variables
(see Variable initializers). Indeed, in the
first case, the return type of the operator init
must be void
while in the second, it must be the (non-void
) type of the variable.
Much like in C++, casting (see Casts) provides for an elegant
implementation of structure inheritance, including a virtual function v
:
struct parent { real x; void operator init(int x) {this.x=x;} void v(int) {write(0);} void f() {v(1);} } void write(parent p) {write(p.x);} struct child { parent parent; real y=3; void operator init(int x) {parent.operator init(x);} void v(int x) {write(x);} parent.v=v; void f()=parent.f; } parent operator cast(child child) {return child.parent;} parent p=parent(1); child c=child(2); write(c); // Outputs 2; p.f(); // Outputs 0; c.f(); // Outputs 1; write(c.parent.x); // Outputs 2; write(c.y); // Outputs 3;
For further examples of structures, see Legend
and picture
in
the Asymptote
base module plain
.